The Nobel Laureates

The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences has decided to award the 2025 Nobel Prize in Chemistry to Susumu Kitagawa, Richard Robson, and Omar M. Yaghi “for the development of metal–organic frameworks.” The 2025 Nobel Prize laureates in chemistry have created molecular constructions with large spaces through which gases and other chemicals can flow. These constructions, metal–organic frameworks, can be used to harvest water from desert air, capture carbon dioxide, store toxic gases, or catalyse chemical reactions. Kitagawa, Robson, and Yaghi have developed a new form of molecular architecture. In their constructions, metal ions function as cornerstones that are linked by long organic (carbon-based) molecules. Together, the metal ions and molecules are organised to form crystals that contain large cavities. These porous materials are called metal–organic frameworks (MOF). By varying the building blocks used in the MOFs, chemists can design them to capture and store specific substances. MOF...

The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences has decided to award the Nobel Prize in Physics 2025 to John Clarke University of California, Berkeley, USA Michel H. Devoret Yale University, New Haven, CT and University of California, Santa Barbara, USA John M. Martinis University of California, Santa Barbara, USA “for the discovery of macroscopic quantum mechanical tunnelling and energy quantisation in an electric circuit” Their experiments on a chip revealed quantum physics in action More info. Nobelprize.org

 This year's Nobel Prizes in science celebrate remarkable discoveries transforming our understanding of everything from gene regulation to artificial intelligence. Here's a closer look at the groundbreaking work recognized in physiology or medicine, physics, and chemistry, which has redefined the scientific landscape profoundly. Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine: Cracking the Code of Gene Regulation with MicroRNA The Nobel in Physiology or Medicine went to Victor Ambros and Gary Ruvkun for their discovery of microRNA , tiny yet powerful strands of RNA that don't make proteins but act as vital gene regulators. Conducted initially on worms, their work revealed that microRNAs play a crucial role in turning genes on and off across all complex life forms, fundamentally altering how organisms develop and function. By understanding this mechanism, researchers are exploring potential treatments for diseases like cancer, where controlling gene expression could prevent or slow ...

 Kip Thorne, born June 1, 1940, is an American theoretical physicist best recognized for his contributions to gravitational physics and astrophysics. He is most known for his theoretical predictions and analyses of black holes and gravitational waves. Thorne acquired his Bachelor of Science degree in 1962 from the California Institute of Technology (Caltech) and his Ph.D. in 1965 from Princeton University. He subsequently returned to Caltech, where he became a theoretical physics professor and stayed for the rest of his academic career. Thorne's work with fellow physicists Stephen Hawking and Roger Penrose in developing the laws regulating black holes was one of his most significant accomplishments. They collaborated to create the framework of general relativity in order to comprehend the nature and properties of black holes. Their findings demonstrated that black holes had event horizons and may generate thermal radiation, which is now known as Hawking radiation. Thorne has made s...

 Hargobind Khurana was a scientist of Indian origin who made substantial discoveries in genetics and molecular biology. He was born on January 9, 1922, in Raipur, Punjab, British India (now Pakistan), and died on November 9, 2011, in Concord, Massachusetts. Khorana is well known for his seminal work on the interpretation of the genetic code and nucleic acid synthesis, for which he received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1968. Khorana shared the Nobel Prize with Robert W. Holley and Marshall W. Nirenberg for their discovery of how the arrangement of nucleotides in nucleic acids regulates protein production in cells. This research helped us grasp how DNA encodes genetic information and how it is translated into proteins. During his work, Khorana achieved substantial advances in DNA chemistry, RNA synthesis, and genetic code decoding. He was instrumental in the creation of the first artificial gene and contributed to our understanding of how cells process genetic informa...

 Niels Bohr (1885-1962) was a Danish physicist who contributed significantly to the study of atomic structure and quantum mechanics. He is most known for developing the Bohr model of the atom, which claimed that electrons circle the nucleus in certain energy levels or shells. Bohr's atomic model was a key advance in physics, helping to explain a variety of phenomena such as atomic spectra and atomic stability. His model included the idea of quantized energy levels, which asserted that electrons may only occupy defined orbits around the nucleus and can transition between these levels by absorbing or releasing photons. One of Bohr's most notable contributions was the formulation of the notion known as complementarity during the 1920s. The concept of complementarity states that in some studies, particles display both wave-like and particle-like behavior, but not simultaneously. This idea became a cornerstone of quantum physics and had a significant impact on philosophical understa...

 M. Stanley Whittingham is a well-known scientist and researcher who has made significant contributions to the creation of lithium-ion batteries. He was born in the United Kingdom on December 22, 1941. Whittingham's seminal work on rechargeable lithium batteries began in the 1970s, while he was employed with Exxon Research and Engineering Company. His study concentrated on developing a high-energy-density battery that could effectively store and discharge electrical energy. Whittingham's research resulted in the discovery of intercalation, a technique that allows lithium ions to be introduced and withdrawn from the atomic layers of specific materials. This breakthrough paved the way for the creation of lithium-ion batteries. Whittingham was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 2019 along with John B. Goodenough and Akira Yoshino in appreciation of his pioneering achievements. The Nobel Committee recognized their efforts in developing lithium-ion batteries, which have revolut...

 Ernest Rutherford, better known as Lord Rutherford of Nelson, was a well-known New Zealand physicist. He is widely considered as one of the best nuclear physics experimenters of all time. Rutherford contributed significantly to our understanding of atomic structure and radioactivity. Rutherford presented the Rutherford model of the atom in 1911, which stated that the atom contains a tiny, compact, positively charged nucleus at its center, with electrons surrounding it. This concept transformed the conventional view of the atom and established the groundwork for the creation of the current atomic theory. Rutherford is also famed for his gold foil experiment, which he carried out in 1909. Rutherford and his colleagues attacked a thin sheet of gold foil with alpha particles and examined the scattering patterns. Rutherford concluded from the surprising results that atoms possess a concentrated, positively charged nucleus that comprises just a small proportion of the atomic volume. ...

 The "War of the Currents" was a time in history in the late nineteenth century when there was fierce competition between two competing electrical power systems: Thomas Edison's direct current (DC) system and Nikola Tesla and George Westinghouse's alternating current (AC) system. Thomas Edison pioneered the use of direct current (DC) electricity for electrical distribution through his firm Edison Electric Light firm (later known as General Electric or GE). Due to its restricted transmission capabilities, DC electricity travels in just one way and necessitates power plants being situated near customers. On the other side, Nikola Tesla, with the financial backing of George Westinghouse, lobbied for alternating current power. AC electricity allows for more efficient long-distance transmission and the use of transformers to step up or step down voltage levels as needed. As each side sought to control the burgeoning electric power business, tensions between these two syste...

  Sir William Henry Bragg (1862-1942)       Born at Wigton, Cumberland, England, on July 2, 1862.    Studied  At King's College, Cambridge, he studied mathematics and physics.     Pioneered research in the field of X-ray crystallography.     Developed the concept of X-ray diffraction with his son Lawrence Bragg.     Proposed Bragg's law, which explains X-ray diffraction by crystals and allows crystal shapes to be determined.     The structure of numerous crystals, including minerals and chemical molecules, was investigated.     X-ray crystallography was used to investigate the molecular structures of key compounds such as proteins.     He was a professor at the Universities of Leeds (1909-1915) and Manchester (1915-1919).     In 1915, he and his son Lawrence shared the Nobel Prize in Physics for their work on X-ray crystallography.

 Linus Pauling was a prominent American scientist, biochemist, peace activist, and author who lived from 1901 to 1994. His life and accomplishments touched several sectors and had a substantial effect in each.  Here are some highlights from his life and work: Linus Pauling was born on February 28, 1901, in Portland, Oregon, United States.     He showed an early interest in science and went on to study chemical engineering at Oregon State University.     Later, he proceeded to the California Institute of Technology (Caltech), where he received his Ph.D. in physical chemistry in 1925. Chemistry Contributions:  Pauling's most significant contributions were in the realm of chemistry, namely the study of chemical bonding and molecular structure.     He invented the notion of electronegativity, which explains why atoms in a chemical connection share electrons unequally.     Pauling developed the idea of hybridization, which describes...

Peter Higgs is a British theoretical physicist best known for his work on the Higgs boson theory, which describes a basic particle in particle physics. He was born in Newcastle upon Tyne, England, on May 29, 1929. Higgs made major contributions to our knowledge of the universe's fundamental forces and particles. To explain why other particles have mass, Higgs postulated the creation of a new particle, now known as the Higgs boson, in 1964. His idea, together with the work of other physicists, served as the foundation for the Higgs mechanism, which gives a method for particles to gain mass. The Higgs boson was discovered in 2012 at the LHC in Switzerland, confirming the existence of the expected particle. Peter Higgs and François Englert were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2013 for their revolutionary work. The discovery of the Higgs boson was a watershed moment in particle physics, advancing our knowledge of the fundamental nature of matter and the cosmos. Peter Higgs had a ...

 The term "Big Pharma conspiracy" refers to the widespread idea that pharmaceutical firms engage in clandestine and immoral practices in order to maximize profits at the expense of public health. While it is true that the pharmaceutical business is profit-driven, valid concerns regarding corporate practices must be distinguished from unsubstantiated conspiracy theories. Consider the following crucial points:     Research & Development: Creating new pharmaceuticals is a time-consuming and expensive process that requires considerable research, clinical trials, and regulatory clearance. Pharmaceutical businesses devote enormous amounts to research and development (R&D) in order to identify and commercialize new medications. While profit is a motivator, it is also vital to recuperate the significant expenditures of R&D and to support future innovation. Patent protection is obtained by pharmaceutical corporations in order to preserve their investments in medicati...

 John Bardeen (1908-1991) was a physicist and electrical engineer from the United States who made substantial contributions to condensed matter physics and semiconductor technology. He is well recognized for his part in the discovery of the transistor and for being the only person to have twice been awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics. On May 23, 1908, in Madison, Wisconsin, United States, Bardeen was born. He earned his bachelor's degree at the University of Wisconsin-Madison and his Ph.D. in mathematical physics from Princeton University in 1936. He joined the engineering faculty at the University of Minnesota after finishing his Ph.D. Bardeen began studying solid-state physics in the late 1930s, focusing on electrical conductivity in metals and semiconductors. As a member of the team at the Naval Ordnance Laboratory during WWII, he contributed to the creation of radar technology. While working at Bell Laboratories, Bardeen, together with Walter Brattain and William Shockley, devi...

 The Manhattan Project was a top-secret research and development program run by the United States during WWII with the purpose of producing atomic weapons, namely the atomic bomb. It was named after the Manhattan Engineer District, the organization of the United States Army Corps of Engineers in charge of its administration. The project was launched in 1939 in response to fears that Nazi Germany was working on producing nuclear weapons. Recognizing the potential strategic and military significance of such weapons, the US government committed significant money and technical skill to the research. The Manhattan Project brought together a varied mix of scientists, engineers, and military people, including J. Robert Oppenheimer, Enrico Fermi, and Edward Teller, among others. Several major research and production sites were created, including Los Alamos, New Mexico (for bomb design), Oak Ridge, Tennessee (for uranium enrichment), and Hanford, Washington (for plutonium manufacture). Vari...

 Arthur H. Compton, often known as Arthur Holly Compton, was a scientist from the United States who made major contributions to quantum mechanics and nuclear physics. He was born on September 10, 1892 in Wooster, Ohio, and died on March 15, 1962 in Berkeley, California. Compton is well known for discovering the Compton effect, for which he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1927. Compton conducted X-ray tests in the early 1920s and discovered that when X-rays are dispersed by electrons, their wavelength rises. This shift in wavelength supported Albert Einstein's photon hypothesis by providing evidence for the particle-like properties of photons and confirming the dual nature of light. Compton scattering was named after this occurrence. Compton's research on the Compton effect has far-reaching ramifications for understanding the interaction of X-rays and matter, as well as the development of quantum mechanics. His discoveries also set the way for advances in domains such ...

Alfred Nobel (1833-1896) was a Swedish scientist, engineer, and inventor best known for developing dynamite and founding the Nobel Prizes. He was born on October 21, 1833, in Stockholm, Sweden, into an engineering family. Nobel's most important innovation, dynamite, was patented in 1867. Dynamite transformed the building and mining sectors by making rock and earth blasting safer and more efficient. However, Nobel was gravely worried by his invention's devastating potential and its employment in combat.  Nobel donated the majority of his income in his will to establish the Nobel Prizes, which are presented yearly in a variety of categories, including Physics, Chemistry, Physiology or Medicine, Literature, Peace, and, later, the Sveriges Riksbank Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel. Individuals who made important contributions to these sectors and encouraged the development of humanity were to get the awards. Nobel Prizes were first awarded in 1901, five years fo...

 Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen was a German scientist best known for inventing X-rays. Here are some highlights from his life and contributions: The invention of X-rays:    Roentgen discovered X-rays by accident on November 8, 1895, while doing research with cathode rays.     He found that a fluorescent screen in his lab started to shine even though it was not directly in the line of the cathode rays.     Roentgen discovered a new sort of penetrating radiation, which he named X-rays due to its unknown nature. X-ray Properties and Applications:  Roentgen studied X-rays extensively and discovered that they could pass through various materials, including human tissue. He found that X-rays could provide pictures of the inside structures of things, including human beings, opening the path for medical imaging procedures to be developed. Roentgen's findings had a significant influence on medicine, industry, and scientific study. Legacy and Recognition:   ...

Marie Curie, usually known as Madam Curie, was a well-known physicist and chemist. She was born in Warsaw, Poland, on November 7, 1867, and died in Passy, France, on July 4, 1934. Marie Curie is most known for her groundbreaking radiation research, which resulted in the discovery of two elements, polonium, and radium. She was the first woman to get a Nobel Prize and the first person to receive Nobel Prizes in both physics (1903) and chemistry (1911). Marie Curie's work transformed our knowledge of the atomic structure and set the path for several breakthroughs in nuclear physics and medicine. Her scientific discoveries and efforts have had a long-lasting influence.  Contributions of Marie Curie Marie Curie lived a remarkable life and made substantial contributions to physics and chemistry. Here are some highlights from her life and career: Radioactivity Investigation:     Marie Curie did pioneering research on radioactivity alongside her husband, Pierre Curie.   ...

 American molecular biologist and geneticist James Watson, often known as James D. Watson, and Francis Crick are best known for discovering the structure of DNA. He was born in Chicago, Illinois, in the United States, on April 6, 1928.  Rosalind Franklin's X-ray crystallography photographs and Watson and Crick's work to determine the double-helix structure of DNA, the molecule that conveys genetic information in living things, helped in the early 1950s. Their finding, which was reported in the 1953 issue of the magazine Nature, contributed to a new understanding of the molecular basis of heredity and set the groundwork for contemporary molecular biology. In 1962, Watson, Crick, and Maurice Wilkins shared the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their research on the molecular makeup of nucleic acids and the role that it plays in the transmission of information in living things. Following the identification of the DNA structure, Watson carried out more studies and signific...